Genre and the
Video Game
Mark J. P. Wolf
The
idea of categorization by genre, and the notion that there
are certain conventions present in each genre, has been
used in the study of literature and film and has proven
to be a useful way of looking at both. The idea of genre
has not been without difficulties, such as the defining
of what exactly constitutes a genre, overlaps between genres,
and the fact that genres are always in flux as long as new
works are being produced. And genre study differs from one
medium to the next. Thomas Schatz, in his book Hollywood
Genres, outlines some of the distinctions
between literary genre study and film genre study. He also
notes that genre study in the past often focussed on subject
matter and neglected the role of the audience. He writes:
Genre
study may be more “productive” if we complement the narrow
critical focus of traditional genre analysis with a broader
sociocultural perspective. Thus, we may consider a genre
film not only as some filmmaker’s artistic expression, but
further as the cooperation between artists and audience
in celebrating their collective values and ideals. In fact,
many qualities traditionally viewed as artistic shortcomings—the
psychologically static hero, for instance, or the predictability
of the plot—assume a significantly
different value when examined as components of a genre’s
ritualistic narrative system.1
One
could easily substitute “video game” for “film” in the above
quote; video games’ heroes are certainly more static than
film ones, and plots are often even more predictable. And
most of all, the interactive experience of playing a video
game is even more of a “cooperation between artists and audiences”, who go beyond
“celebrating collective values” by applying those values
to the activity found in game play itself.
Video
game genre study differs markedly from literary or film
genre study due to the direct and active participation of
the audience, through the surrogate player-character who
acts within the game’s diegetic world, taking part in the
central conflict of the game’s narrative. In regard to narrative,
Schatz describes the general plot structure of the genre
film as:
establishment (via various narrative and iconographic
cues) of the generic community with its inherent dramatic
conflicts;
animation of those conflicts through the actions
and attitudes of the genre’s constellation of characters;
intensification of the conflict by means of conventional
situations and dramatic confrontations until the conflict
reaches crisis proportions;
resolution of the crisis in a fashion which eliminates
the physical and/or ideological threat and thereby celebrates
the (temporarily) well-ordered community.2
Apart
from the fact the video games often do not have happy endings
(games usually end with a player-character’s death), Schatz’s
four terms describe the action of most video games. If a
film genre represents a “range of experience” for the audience
as Schatz argues, video games fit the description even more
closely. In some ways, player participation is arguably
the central determinant in describing and classifying video
games, moreso even than iconography.
Iconography
versus Interactivity
In
his essay “The Idea of Genre in the American Cinema”, Ed
Buscombe lists three areas in which genre elements may appear
in film: iconography, structure and theme.3
While iconography and theme may be applicable to narrative-based
video games, other games like Tetris
and Ataxx
are abstract to the point where little or no narrative exists,
and some games, like Video Pinball and Scrabble are patterned after relatively
nonnarrative activities, and do not contain much in the
way of diegetic worlds populated by characters. While the
ideas of iconography and theme may be appropriate tools
for analyzing Hollywood films as well as many video games, another area, interactivity,
is an essential part of every game’s structure and a more
appropriate way of examining and defining video game genres.
Just
as different forms of dance (foxtrot, waltz, ballet,
jazz) are defined by how the dancers move rather than how
they look, an examination of the variety and range of video
games reveals the inadequacy of classification by iconography
of even narrative-based games. While some video games can
be classified in a manner similar to that of films (we might
say that Outlaw is a Western, Space Invaders science fiction, and Combat a war game), classification by
iconography ignores the fundamental differences and similarities
which are to be found in the player’s experience of the
game. Outlaw and Combat, both early games for the Atari 2600, are very
similar in that both simply feature player-characters maneuvering
and shooting at each other in a field of obstacles on a
single, bounded screen of graphics, with cowboys in one
game and tanks in the other. In a similar vein, Activision’s
Chopper Command
for the Atari 2600 is essentially a version of Defender with helicopters replacing the spaceships. Conversely,
an iconographic analysis of Space
Invaders, Spaceward
Ho!, Defender,
and Star Wars, as well as many other games,
would consider them all “science fiction” even though they
vary widely in player experience. As narrative games grow
more complex and cinematic, iconographic and thematic generic
classifications from film will be able to be applied more
usefully, but interactivity will always be an important
factor in the way the games are experienced.
Genres
based on interactivity also avoid some of the problems found
in literary and film genres. In “Genre and Critical Methodology”,
Andrew Tudor points out that in relying on theme for the
determination of genre, one is confronted with the difficulties
in isolating a film’s (or rather, film author’s) intentions.4
In a video game, there is almost always a definite objective
that the player strives to complete (or find and complete,
as in the case of Myst), and in doing so very specific interactions
are used. Thus the intention, of the player-character at
least, is often clear, and can be analyzed as a part of
the game. The game’s objective is a motivational force for
the player, and this, combined with the various forms of
interactivity present in the game, are useful places to
start in building a set of video game genres. The object
of the game can be multiple or divided into steps, placing
the game in more than one genre, just as a film’s theme
and iconography can place a film in multiple genres (the
film Blade Runner, for example, fits both science
fiction and hard-boiled detective genres). The main objective
in Pac-Man by which a player gains points
and advances levels, for example, is the eating of the yellow
dots. In order to do so successfully, the player-character
must avoid the pursuing ghosts, and also navigate a maze.
Thus while Pac-Man
may be primarily classified (according to the terms below)
as a “Collecting” game, we may also classify it as an “Escape”
or “Maze” game, albeit secondarily. By beginning with the
interaction required by the game’s primary objective, we
can start to divide the wide variety of video games into
a series of interactive genres.
Interactive
Genres for Classifying Video Games
The
following list of genres based on interactivity can be used
in conjunction with the existing taxonomy of iconographically
or thematically based genres (like those of film) when attempting
to categorize video games. The genres below take into consideration
the dominant characteristics of the interactive experience
and the games’ goals and objectives, and the nature of the
game’s player-character and player controls. Also, certain
genres listed here (Diagnostic,
Demo,
Educational,
Puzzle,
Simulation,
and Utility)
contain programs which are arguably not “games”, but since
they appear as cartridges or discs in a form similar to
game cartridges and discs (and are treated as such by many
game collectors), and because they sometimes contain gamelike
elements (such as Mario
Teaches Typing), they have been included here
for the sake of completeness.
In
the culture surrounding the video game, certain generic
terms such as the “Shoot ’Em Up” are already established
and in use among players, and these terms and distinctions
are reflected in the proposed list of terms below. Some
of these genres overlap commonly-used genres of moving imagery
(such as Adaptation,
Adventure,
Chase),
while others, such as Escape,
Maze,
or Shoot
’Em Up, are specific to video games and reflect the
interactive nature of the medium. These genre terms regard
the nature of interactivity in the game itself rather than
ask whether the game is single-player, multiple-player,
or designed to be playable over a network. Due to the different
types of action and objectives that can occur in a single
game, games can often be cross-listed in two or more genres.
Also, some games, like M*A*S*H or Rebel Assault,
feature different sequences or scenarios each of which can
be categorized into different genres. Video games used as
examples here include arcade video games, home video games,
home computer games, and in a few cases, networked games.
The format of this list is patterned after the Library of
Congress Moving Imagery Genre-Form Guide compiled by Brian
Taves (chair), Judi Hoffman, and Karen Lund, whose work
was the inspiration and model for this list.
Genres
covered in this list: Abstract,
Adaptation,
Adventure,
Artificial
Life, Board Games,
Capturing,
Card
Games, Catching,
Chase,
Collecting,
Combat,
Demo,
Diagnostic,
Dodging,
Driving,
Educational,
Escape,
Fighting,
Flying,
Gambling,
Interactive
Movie, Management
Simulation, Maze,
Obstacle
Course, Pencil-and-Paper
Games, Pinball,
Platform,
Programming
Games, Puzzle,
Quiz,
Racing,
Role-Playing,
Rhythm
and Dance, Shoot
’Em Up, Simulation,
Sports,
Strategy,
Table-Top
Games, Target,
Text
Adventure, Training
Simulation, and Utility.
Abstract
Games
which have nonrepresentational graphics and often involve
an objective which is not oriented or organized as a narrative. Often the objective involves construction or visiting
or filling every part of the screen (as in Tetris,
Qix,
Pipe Dream, or Q*bert), or destruction
or emptying of the screen (as in Breakout or Pac-Man).
Characters appearing in abstract games may be anthropomorphic
in design (such as Q*bert), but
usually do not attempt to represent real world animals or
people or their behaviors. Abstraction is, of course, a
matter of degree, though it is usually possible to discern
whether or not the game was intended to be deliberately
representational. For example, despite their simple, blocky
graphics, early Atari 2600 games such as Basketball or Street Racer attempt to represent people
and race cars, which is reflected not only in their design
but in their interaction within the game. Nor should the
term be used for games which are adaptations of games existing
in different media, such as Checkers or Othello, which are abstract in design
and play, but which are nonetheless adaptations and thus
representations of games from other media.
Examples: Arkanoid;
Amidar
(with Collecting);
Ataxx;
Block Out (with Puzzle);
Breakout;
Marble Madness; Pac-Man (with Collecting,
Escape,
and Maze);
Pipe Dream;
Q*bert; Qix (with Collecting);
Super Breakout;
Tempest (with Shoot
’Em Up); Tetris
(with Puzzle)
Adaptation
Games
based on activities adapted from another medium or gaming
activity, such as sports, table-top games, board games,
card games, or games whose action closely follows a narrative
from a work existing in another medium, such as a book,
short story, comic book, graphic novel, or play. This involves
such questions as how the original work is changed to allow
for interactivity and the completion of an objective, or
in the case of adapted games, how the original activity
changes as a result of being adapted. This term should not
be used for games which use the same characters as existing
works in another medium but make no attempt to even loosely
follow plots or imitate activities found in those works.
Home video games and computer games may also be adaptations
of arcade video games, in which case they are usually reduced
in graphic detail, complexity, or speed when compared with
the original. In a few cases, arcade games, such as Computer Space (1971), are adaptations
of mainframe computer games. This term should only be applied
to Simulation
games when they are adapted from games or gaming activities
in other media.
Note: See Sports,
Table-Top
Games, Board Games,
Card Games,
Pencil-and-Paper
Games, and Simulation.
Examples: Adapted from card games: Casino; Eric’s Ultimate Solitaire; Ken Uston Blackjack/Poker. Adapted from
cartoons: Spy Vs Spy;
The Simpsons. Adapted from comic
books: Spiderman,
X-Men, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. Adapted from film: Tron;
Star Wars;
Krull; Muppet Treasure Island.
Adapted from pencil-and-paper games: Hangman;
Tic Tac
Toe. Adapted from sports:
American Football;
Atari Baseball;
Hot Shots Tennis.
Adapted from table-top games: Pong;
Sure Shot Pool;
Virtual Pool. Adapted from television
game shows: Family
Feud; Jeopardy;
Joker’s Wild; Password; The Price is Right; Tic-Tac-Dough;
$25,000 Pyramid;
Wheel of Fortune
Adventure
Games
which are set in a “world” usually made up of multiple,
connected rooms or screens, involving an objective which
is more complex than simply catching, shooting, capturing,
or escaping, although completion of the objective may involve
several or all of these. Objectives usually must be completed
in several steps, for example, finding keys and unlocking
doors to other areas to retrieve objects needed elsewhere
in the game. Characters are usually able to carry objects,
such as weapons, keys, tools, and so on. Settings often
evoke a particular historical time period and place, such
as the middle ages or Arthurian England, or are thematically
related to content-based genres such as Science Fiction,
Fantasy, or Espionage. This term should not be used for
games in which screens are only encountered in one-way linear
fashion, like the “levels” in Donkey Kong, or for games like Pitfall! which
are essentially limited to running, jumping, and avoiding
dangers (see Obstacle
Course). Nor should the term be used to refer to games
like Dragon’s Lair, Gadget, or Star Trek: Borg, which do not allow a
player to wander and explore its “world” freely, but strictly
limit outcomes and possible narrative paths to a series
of video sequences and linear progression through a predetermined
narrative (see Interactive
Movies).
Note: For adventure games which are primarily
text-based, see Text Adventure.
For related games similar in theme to adventure games, see
also Obstacle
Course and Interactive
Movies.
Examples: Adventure
(for the Atari 2600); E.T.
The Extraterrestrial (with Adaptation);
Haunted House,
Krull (with Adaptation);
Myst
(with Puzzle);
Raiders of the Lost
Ark (with Adaptation);
Spy Vs Spy
(with Adaptation);
Superman
(with Adaptation);
games in the Tomb
Raider series; Venture;
games from the Daggerfall
series; games from the Ultima
series
Artificial
Life
Games
which involve the growth and/or maintenance of digital creatures
of some sort, which can “die” without the proper care by
the player. Often growth and the “happiness” or
“contentedness” of the characters are
the goals of the game. (Whether or not all such programs
constitute “games” is debatable.) The term should not be
used for games which deal with the allocation of resources
or games which are primarily concerned with management (see
Management
Simulation).
Examples: AquaZone;
Babyz;
Catz; Creatures; Dogz;
The Little Computer People; The Sims (with Management
Simulation)
Board
Games
Games
which are an adaptation of existing board games (see Adaptation)
or games which are similar to board games in their design
and play even if they did not previously exist as board
games, like Fooblitzky and Jones
in the Fast Lane. Games of this genre include
either classic board games like Chess, Checkers, or Backgammon,
or trademarked ones such as Scrabble or Monopoly. This term should not be used
for games adapted from games such as pool or table tennis,
in which physical skills are involved (see Table-Top
Games), nor for games adapted from games which require
only paper and a pencil to play, such as Hangman
or Tic-Tac-Toe
(see Pencil-and-Paper
Games), nor for games adapted from games which are primarily
card-based and do not use a board (see Card Games).
Three games made by Philips/Magnavox, Conquest
of the World, Quest
for the Rings, and The
Great Wall Street Fortune Hunt, required a
board game to be used along with the video game itself.
Note: Most Board Games, though not all, can
be cross-listed with Adaptation,
and many can also be cross-listed with Strategy.
Examples: Backgammon;
Battleship;
Clue; Conquest of the World; Fooblitzky; The Great
Wall Street Fortune Hunt; Jones in the Fast Lane; Monopoly; Othello;
Quest for the Rings;
Scrabble; Stratego; Video Checkers;
Video Chess
Capturing
Games
in which the primary objective involves the capturing of
objects or characters that move away from and try to evade
the player-character. This may involve stopping the object
or character (as in Gopher
or Keystone Kapers), or closing off their
access to an escape route (as in Surround
or in the light cycle section of the arcade game Tron). This term should not be used for games in which objects
or characters do not move (see Collecting)
or do not actively try to avoid the player-character (see
Catching),
nor should it be used for Strategy
games (such as Chess and Checkers) involving the capturing
of pieces which are controlled by the player, but which
are not player-characters directly representing the player
in the game.
Note: Not necessary to cross-list with Chase
as this is implied in Capturing. Many games with more than
one player can be cross-listed with Escape,
as game play often involves player-characters alternately
trying to capture one another and escape from one another.
Capturing objectives also occur briefly in some games; for
example, in Pac-man
after eating a power pill when the ghosts can be chased
and eaten, or the capturing of criminals in Superman.
Examples: Gopher;
Hole Hunter;
Keystone Kapers; Surround (with Escape);
Take the Money and
Run; Texas Chainsaw Massacre; the light cycle
game in Tron
Card
Games
Games
which are adaptations of existing card games, or games which
are essentially like card games in that they are primarily
card-based (such as various solitaire computer games). While
most Card Games use the standard four-suit deck, some games
use specialized cards (such as 1000
Miles, a shareware game which is an adaptation
of Parker Brothers’ Milles Bornes racing card game). This
term should not be used for Trivia Games which are primarily
question-and-answer games.
Note: Not necessary to cross-list with Adaptation,
as that is implied in Card Games. Many card games which
involve betting can also be cross-listed with Gambling.
Examples: 1000
Miles (with Racing);
Blackjack
(with Gambling);
Casino
(with Gambling);
Eric’s Ultimate Solitaire;
Ken Uston Blackjack/Poker (with Gambling);
Montana;
Video Poker (with Gambling)
Catching
Games
in which the primary objective involves the catching of
objects or characters that do not actively try to evade
the player-character. If the objects or characters are in
motion, it is usually along a predetermined path and independent
of the movements of the player-character. In some cases
the player-character can affect the motion of the objects
or characters (such as in Stampede,
where the player-character can nudge the cattle forward),
but at no time do the objects or characters try to actively
avoid the player-character. This term should not be used
for games in which objects or characters do not move (see
Collecting)
or games in which they actively try to avoid the player-character
(see Capturing).
Nor should the term be used for games that require timing
in order to use moving objects, such as the moving logs
in Frogger,
or the swinging vines in Pitfall!,
nor for Sports
games with balls which are thrown, bounced, or caught, as
these objects are used and reused but not “caught” and removed
from the game.
Examples: Alpha
Beam with Ernie (with Educational);
Big Bird’s Egg Catch;
Circus Atari, Fishing Derby; Lost Luggage; Stampede; Quantum; and games 21 through 27 in Street Racer
Chase
See
Catching,
Capturing,
Driving,
Escape,
Flying,
and Racing
Collecting
Games
in which the primary objective involves the collecting of
objects that do not move (such as Pac-Man
or Mousetrap), or the surrounding of areas
(such as Qix
or Amidar). Often scoring in these games is determined
by the number of objects collected or areas bounded. “Collecting”
here can mean simply running over or hitting objects which
then disappear (as the dots in Pac-Man,
or the balloons in Prop
Cycle). This term should not be used for games
in which objects or characters sought by the player-character
are in motion (see Catching)
or games in which they actively try to avoid the player-character
(see Capturing).
Nor should the term be used for games that require the use
of objects (such as keys, currency, or weaponry) which are
only indirectly used in the attainment of the game’s objective.
Some games involve the collecting of pieces of an object
which can be assembled once all the pieces are found, such
as the bridge in Superman
or the urn in Haunted House, although these games often
have objectives that involve more than simply collecting,
and so should not be considered as belonging to this genre.
Examples: Amidar
(with Abstract);
Mousetrap
(with Maze and
Escape);
Pac-man
(with Maze and
Escape);
Spy Vs Spy
(with Combat
and Maze);
Prop Cycle
(with Flying);
Qix
(with Abstract)
Combat
Games
which involve two or more players, or one player and a computer-controlled
player, shooting some form of projectiles at each other,
and in which all players are provided with similar means
for a fairly balanced fight. These games usually emphasize
maneuverability and sometimes the outwitting of the opponent.
This term should not be used for Shoot
’Em Up games in which the two sides are clearly unequal
or not evenly balanced, nor for Fighting
games which do not involve shooting. Although these games
may range in the appearance of their content, for example,
cowboys in Outlaw, tanks or planes in Combat, or paddles in Warlords, the basic play of the game,
shoot the opponent while avoiding getting shot, remains
essentially the same.
Note: For related games, see Fighting
and Shoot
’Em Up.
Examples: Battletech;
Battlezone;
Combat; Dactyl Nightmare; Outlaw;
Spy Vs Spy
(with Collecting
and Maze);
Warlords
Demo
Cartridges,
discs, or downloads designed to demonstrate games or a game
system. Such cartridges were primarily used in store displays
to demonstrate games. While they may not contain complete
games themselves, these cartridges have the same appearance
as game cartridges and are sometimes collected and traded
as game cartridges, and they are often included in listings
of cartridges. As discs or downloads, Demos allow a player
to try out a game for free without buying the full-sized
game.
Note: Not necessary to cross-list with Utility,
as that is implied in Demo.
Examples: ADAM
Demo Cartridge, Dealer
Demo (Bally Astrocade), Demonstration
Cartridge (RCA Studio II), Music
Box Demo (Coleco ADAM)
Diagnostic
Cartridges
designed to test the functioning of a system. While they
are not games themselves, these cartridges have the same
appearance as game cartridges and are sometimes collected
and traded as game cartridges, and they are often included
in listings of cartridges.
Note: Not necessary to cross-list with Utility,
as that is implied in Diagnostic.
Examples: Diagnostic
Cartridge (Identification number FDS100144)
for the Atari 5200 system; Diagnostic
Cartridge (Identification number CB101196)
for the Atari 7800 system, Final Test Cartridge (Coleco ADAM), Super Controller Test Cartridge (Coleco
ADAM)
Dodging
Games
in which the primary objective is to avoid projectiles or
other moving objects. Scoring is often determined by the
number of objects successfully dodged, or by the crossing
of a field of moving objects that must be dodged (as in
Freeway
or Frogger).
This term should not be used for games in which players
avoid getting shot at and are able to shoot (see Combat
and Shoot
’Em Up). In many games like Asteroids
or Space Invaders
avoidance of objects or projectiles is important for the
player to remain in the game, but points are not awarded
for merely avoiding them, and players usually have the option
of shooting at obstacles, which is not the case in Dodging
games.
Examples: Dodge
’Em (with Driving),
Freeway
(with Obstacle
Course); Frogger
(with Obstacle
Course); Journey
Escape; and some games in Street
Racer (with Driving
and Racing)
Driving
Games
based primarily on driving skills, such as steering, maneuverability,
speed control, and fuel conservation. This term should not
be used for games in which racing or the winning of a race
is the main objective (see Racing),
nor for games which are essentially obstacle courses in
which a player’s main objective is to hit or avoid touching
a series of objects or characters (see Obstacle
Course), unless driving skills are essential to play
and to the winning of the game. In most cases, Driving games
involve vehicles, whereas Obstacle Course games generally
do not. Scoring in Driving games
is often based on how fast a particular course is completed,
rather than whether or not an opponent is beat in a race,
and these games are often single-player games.
Examples: Dodge
’Em (with Dodging);
Indy 500
(with Racing);
Night Driver;
Pole Position (with Racing);
Red Planet
(with Racing);
Street Racer
(with Dodging
and Racing)
Educational
Games
which are designed to teach, and in which the main objective
involves the learning of a lesson. Rather than being structured as a straightforward set of lessons or exercises,
these programs are structured like games, with such elements
as scoring, timed performances, or incentives given for
correct answers. The degree to which these programs can
be considered games varies greatly.
Note: Not necessary to cross-list with Utility,
as this is implied in Educational.
Examples: Alpha
Beam with Ernie (with Catching);
Basic Math;
Mario’s Early Years: Fun With Numbers;
Mario Teaches Typing; Math Blaster: Episode 1; Math Grand Prix; Morse; Number Games; Playschool
Math; Spelling
Games; Word
Games
Escape
Games
whose main objective involves escaping pursuers or getting
out of some form of enclosure.
Games can be open-ended, with the game ending when a player
escapes from an enclosure or enters a place safe from the
pursuers, or closed, in which a player escapes pursuers
for as long as possible but always succumbs in the end (as
in Pac-Man). This term should not be used
for games in which the player-character battles the opponent
instead of fleeing (see Combat and Shoot
’Em Up), nor for games like Adventure
or Haunted House
in which the player-character is only occasionally pursued
by characters.
Examples: Pac-Man
(with Collecting
and Maze);
Maze Craze
(with Maze);
Mousetrap (with Collecting
and Maze);
Ms. Pac-Man
(with Collecting
and Maze);
Surround
(with Capturing)
Fighting
Games
involving characters who fight usually hand-to-hand, in
one-to-one combat situations without the use of firearms
or projectiles. In most of these games, the fighters
are represented as humans or anthropomorphic characters.
This term should not be used for games which involve shooting
or vehicles (see Combat
and Shoot
’Em Up), or for games which include fighting, like Ice Hockey, but which have other objectives
(see Sports).
Note: Many Fighting games can also be cross-listed
with Sports.
For related games, see also Combat.
Examples: Avengers;
Body Slam;
Boxing (with Sports);
games in the Mortal
Kombat series; Soul
Edge; games in the Tekken
series; Wrestle War
Flying
Games
involving flying skills, such as steering, altitude control,
takeoff and landing, maneuverability, speed control, and
fuel conservation. This term should not be used for games
in which shooting an opponent is the main objective (see
Combat
and Shoot
’Em Up), unless flying skills are essential to game
play and to the winning of the game. Flying games can involve
airplanes, birds, or spaceships, and movement can take place
in the sky (as in A-10
Attack and Prop
Cycle), through caverns (as in Descent),
or in outer space (as in Starmaster
and Star Ship).
Note: See also Combat,
Shoot
’Em Up, Sports,
and Training
Simulation.
Examples: A-10
Attack (with Training
Simulation); Descent
(with Maze
and Shoot
’Em Up); F/A-18
Hornet 3.0 (with Training
Simulation); Flight
Unlimited (with Training
Simulation);Prop
Cycle (with Collecting);
Solaris;
Starmaster (with Shoot
’Em Up)
Gambling
Games
which involve the betting of a stake, which increases or
decreases the player’s total assets in the following round. These games usually involve multiple rounds of betting, allowing
a player’s stakes or money to grow or diminish over time.
This term should not be used for games in which betting
does not occur, or for games in which wins and losses do
not carry over into the following round.
Note: See also Card Games
and Table-Top
Games.
Examples: Blackjack
(with Card
Games); Casino
(with Card Games);
Slot Machine;
Video Poker (with Card Games);
You Don’t Know Jack
(with Quiz)
Interactive
Movie
Games
which are made up of branching video clips or other moving
images, the branching of which is decided by a player’s
actions. Players are often called to make decisions at points
in the game where the action stalls or loops, or during
action sequences that allow player input which can stop
or change the course of action while the video clip is running.
While the player may be given limited freedom of movement
or action, revelation of the story is still largely linear
in structure, with little or no variation possible in its
overall sequence of events. This term should not be used
for games which place a controllable player-character over
backgrounds which are video clips, like Rebel Assault, nor should the term be
used to refer to games like Myst
which allow a player to wander and explore its “world” freely,
but still limit outcomes and possible narrative paths to
a series of video sequences and linear progression through
a relatively predetermined narrative.
Examples: Dragon’s
Lair; Space
Ace; Gadget;
Johnny Mnemonic; Star Trek Borg
Management
Simulation
Games
in which players must balance the use of limited resources
to build or expand some kind of community, institution,
or empire, while dealing with internal forces within (such
as the crime and pollution in SimCity),
or external forces such as those of nature or chance (such
as natural disasters and monsters in SimCity,
or planets that require various amounts of terraforming
as in Spaceward Ho!), and often competition
from other players as well. Single-player games are often
open-ended, where the community or institution grows and
developed over time and continues changing, while multiple-player
games usually have the objective of dominating all of the
other players, at which point the game ends. In some cases,
these games can take on an educational functional as well,
for example, games found in museum displays which simulate
supply and demand or other economic principles.
Note: See also Educational
and Utility.
Examples: Aerobiz;
Caesar II;
Sid Meier’s Civilization; M.U.L.E.; Monopoly; Railroad
Tycoon; SimAnt;
SimCity;
SimFarm; SimTower; Spaceward
Ho!
Maze
Games
in which the objective requires the successful navigation
of a maze. What can be called a maze is, of course,
a matter of degree, though it is
usually possible to discern whether a configuration of rooms
or hallways was intended to deliberately cause difficulties
in navigation (consider, for example, the difference in
complexity between the mazes found in Berzerk, Pac-Man, and Doom).
Mazes may appear in an overhead view (as in Pac-Man), a side view (as in Lode Runner), or first-person perspective (as in Doom) or hidden from view (as in certain
games in Maze Craze).
In some cases, the player-character can alter the maze,
such as opening or closing passageways (as in Mousetrap),
or even digging holes or passageways (as in Lode Runner or Dig
Dug). Some mazes, such as those found in Lode Runner, focus less on navigation
and more on how to gain access to certain portions of the
screen in order to achieve certain results or obtain objects.
Often the player-character must navigate the maze under
the pressure of pursuers, although this is not always the
case. Mazes are also often imbedded within other games,
such as the Blue Labyrinth in Adventure,
or the underground maze of the Selenetic Age in Myst.
Examples: Descent
(with Flying
and Shoot
’Em Up); Dig Dug;
Doom (with Shoot
’Em Up); K. C.
Munchkin (with Collecting
and Escape);
Lode Runner
(with Platform);
Maze Craze;
Mousetrap (with Collecting
and Escape);
Pac-man
(with Collecting
and Escape);
Tunnel Runner;
Tunnels of Doom (with Adventure);
Ms. Pac-Man
(with Collecting
and Escape);
Spy Vs Spy
(with Collecting
and Combat);
Take the Money and
Run
Obstacle
Course
Games
in which the main objective involves the traversing of a
difficult path or one beset with obstacles, through which
movement is essentially linear, often involving running,
jumping, and avoiding dangers. This term should not be used
for games which do not require more than simply steering
down a clear path (see Driving)
or avoiding objects or characters without a linear progression
of movement (see Dodging),
nor should it be used for games which involve chasing or
being chased (see Chase),
or shooting at opponents or getting shot at (see Combat
and Shoot
’Em Up), nor for games with complex objectives (see
Adventure),
nor for games involving more than traversing a path of obstacles
(see Platform).
Note: While Obstacle Courses are generally
linear in design as far as the player-character’s advancement
through them is concerned, this degree of linearity can
vary somewhat; for example, in games allowing a character
to backtrack, or choose an alternate route.
Examples: Boot
Camp; Clown
Downtown; Freeway
(with Dodging);
Frogger
(with Dodging);
Pitfall!; Jungle Hunt
Pencil-and-Paper
Games
Games
which are adaptations of games usually played by means of
pencil and paper (see Adaptation).
This term should not be used for drawing or doodling programs
(see Utility),
or for games like those in the Dungeons
& Dragons series, whose adaptations are
very different from the version of the game played with
pencil and paper.
Note: Not necessary to use with Adaptation
as this is implied in Pencil-and-Paper Games.
Examples: 3-D
Tic-Tac-Toe; Effacer:
Hangman from the 25th Century: Noughts and Crosses; Tic-Tac-Toe;
and Hangman
which appears as a cartridge in several game systems.
Pinball
Games
which simulate the play of a pinball game. Although these games could be considered as Table-Top
Games, there is a tradition of video pinball games and
a wide variety of them to warrant categorizing them in a
genre of their own.
Note: Not necessary to cross-list with Table-Top
Games as that is implied in Pinball.
Examples: Arcade
Pinball; Astrocade
Pinball; Electronic
Pinball; Extreme Pinball; Flipper Game; Galactic Pinball; Kirby’s Pinball Land; Midnight Magic; Pachinko!; Pinball; Pinball Challenge; Pinball
Dreams; Pinball
Fantasies; Pinball
Jam; Pinball Quest; Pinball Wizard; Power Rangers Pinball; Pro Pinball; Real Pinball; Sonic Spinball; Spinball; Super Pinball: Behind the Mask; Super Sushi Pinball; Thunderball!; True Pinball; Video Pinball
Games
in which the primary objective requires movement through
a series of levels, by way of running, climbing, jumping,
and other means of locomotion. Characters and settings are
seen in side view as opposed to top view, thus creating
a graphical sense of “up” and “down” as is implied in “Platform”.
These games often also can involve the avoidance of dropped
or falling objects, conflict with (or navigation around)
computer-controlled characters, and often some character,
object, or reward at the top of the climb which provides
narrative motivation. This term should not be used for games
which do not involve ascending heights or advancement through
a series of levels (see Adventure),
nor for games which involve little more than traversing
a path of obstacles (see Obstacle
Course).
Note: For related games, see also Adventure
and Obstacle
Course.
Examples: Crazy
Climber; Donkey
Kong; Donkey
Kong Jr.; Lode Runner (with Maze);
Spiderman (Atari 2600); Super Mario Bros. (with Collecting);
Warioland;
Yoshi’s Island
Programming
Games
Games
in which the player write short programs that control agents
within a game. These agents then compete and react to situations
based on the player’s programming. This term should not
be used for games which a player must learn to operate a
machine, such as in Riven
(see Puzzle),
nor for games in which the player controls the player-characters
directly. Depending on what the programmed agents do, games
may be able to be cross-listed with other genres.
Examples: AI
Fleet Commander; AI
Wars, CoreWar;
CRobots; Omega; RARS (Robot Auto Racing Simulator); Robot Battle
Puzzle
Games
in which the primary conflict is not so much between the
player-character and other characters, but rather the figuring
out of a solution, which often involves solving enigmas,
navigation, learning how to use different tools, and the
manipulating or reconfiguring of objects. Most often there
is a visual or sonic element to the puzzles as well, or
at least some verbal description of them. This term should
not be used for games which only involve the answering of
questions (see Quiz).
Many Text Adventures also contain Puzzles,
and use text to describe their sights and sounds
Examples: 7th
Guest; Atari
Video Cube; Block
Out (with Abstract);
Dice Puzzle;
Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy (with
Text Adventure);
Jigsaw;
Myst (with Adventure);
Rubik’s Cube
(with Adaptation);
Sokoban;
Suspended Animation (with Text Adventure);
Tetris
(with Abstract)
Quiz
Games
which in which the main objective is the successful answering
of questions. Scoring is usually based on either
how many questions are answered correctly, or on the amount
of money players have after betting on their answers. Some
of these games are adaptations of board games or quiz shows
from television.
Note: Games in which the player can place
a bet on their answers should be cross-listed with Gambling.
Examples: $25,000
Pyramid (with Adaptation);
Fax;
Jeopardy (with Adaptation);
NFL Football Trivia
Challenge ’94/’95; Name
That Tune (with Adaptation);
You Don’t Know Jack
(with Gambling);
Sex Trivia;
Trivial Pursuit (with Adaptation);
Trivia Whiz;
Triv-Quiz; Video Trivia; Wizz Quiz
Racing
Games
in which the objective involves the winning of a race,
or the covering of more ground than an opponent (as in Slot
Racers). Often these games involve driving
skills and can also be cross-listed with Driving.
One-player games can be considered Racing if there are other
computer-controlled cars or vehicles competing on the race
track, however if they are not competitive and act only
as obstacles, use Driving.
Note: See also Driving.
Not necessary to cross-list with Sports
as this is implied in Racing. Although most of these games
involve driving skills and can be cross-listed with Driving,
some of them, like 1000 Miles, do not.
Examples: 1000
Miles (with Card Games);
Daytona U.S.A.
(with Driving);
High Velocity
(with Driving);
Indy 500
(with Driving);
Mario Kart 64
(with Driving);
Math Grand Prix
(with Educational);
Pole Position
(with Driving);
Red Planet
(with Driving);
Slot Racers
(with Dodging);
Street Racer
(with Dodging
and Driving);
Super GT
(with Driving)
Rhythm
and Dance
Games
in which gameplay requires players to keep time with a musical
rhythm. These games may employ a variety of
controllers beyond the usual video game hardware, including
controllers simulating drums (as in DrumMania),
turntables (as in Beatmania),
guitars (as in Guitar
Freaks), or even maracas (as in Samba
de Amigo).
Examples: Beatmania;
Bust-a-Groove;
Dance Dance Revolution; Guitar Freaks; PaRappa the Rapper; Pop ’n’ Music; Samba de Amigo; Space Channel 5; Um Jammer Lammy; Vib-Ribbon (with Obstacle
Course)
Role-Playing
Games
in which players create or take on a character represented
by various statistics, which may even include a developed
persona. The character’s description may include
specifics such as species, race, gender, and occupation,
and may also include various abilities, such as strength
and dexterity, to limited degrees usually represented numerically.
The games can be single-player, such as Ultima III: Exodus (1983), or multiple-player
games such as those which are networked. This term should
not be used for games like Adventure
or Raiders of the
Lost Ark in which identity is not emphasized
or important, nor where characters are not represented statistically.
Note: Many networked games, including MUDs
(Multi-User Dimensions), MOOs (MUD, Object-Oriented), and
MUSHs (Multi-User Shared Hallucination), fall into this
category, although the degree to which they can be considered
games may vary depending on the players and system operators,
and whether or not objectives are set for the players and
competition occurs.
Examples: Anvil
of Dawn; Diablo;
Dragon Lore 2;
Fallout; Mageslayer; Phantasy
Star; Sacred
Pools; Games from the Ultima
series or Dungeons
& Dragons series. Networked games include:
Interstate ’76;
Ivory Tower;
JediMUD;
Northern Lights; OutlawMOO; PernMUSH; RiftMUSH; Rivers of
MUD; Sunflower;
Unsafe Haven;
VikingMUD; Zodiac.
Shoot
’Em Up
Games
involving shooting at, and often destroying, a series of
opponents or objects. As opposed to Combat
games which feature one-on-one battles with opponents of
roughly equal attributes and means, Shoot ’Em Up games usually
feature multiple opponents (the “’Em” is short for “them”)
attacking at once (as in Space Invaders or Galaga) or multiple objects which can
be destroyed (as in Centipede),
which are often potentially harmful to the player-character
(as in Asteroids). In many cases, the player-character
and opponents of the player-character have unequal attributes
and means, and do not even resemble one another (as in Yar’s Revenge), and the games usually
require quick reflexes. Do not use this term for games like
Stellar Track, in which the player-character
and opponents fire at each other, but in such a way that
quick reflexes are not necessary (see Strategy).
There are three types of Shoot ’Em Up games which are common:
in one, the player-character moves horizontally back and
forth at the bottom of the screen shooting upward while
opponents moving around above shoot downward (as in Space Invaders); in the second, the character
moves freely about the screen, encountering opponents from
all sides (as in Berserk
or Robotron: 2084), and the third features
a first-person perspective (as in Doom).
This term should not be used for fighting games which do
not involve shooting (see Fighting),
nor for games in which opponents are fairly evenly matched
(see Combat),
nor for games in which none of the objects the player-character
fires upon can harm the player-character (see Target).
In a few cases, the player-character is primarily defending
rather than attacking, as in Atlantis,
Commando Raid, Missile Command, and Missile Defense 3-D.
Examples: Asteroids;
Berzerk;
Centipede; Doom; Duckshot; Galaga;
Millipede;
Missile Command, Robotron: 2084; Space Invaders; Yar’s Revenge; Zaxxon
Simulation
See
Management
Simulation and Training
Simulation
Sports
Games
which are adaptations of existing sports or variations of
them.
Note: No need to cross-list with Adaptation
as this is implied in Sports. See also Driving,
Fighting,
Obstacle
Course, Racing,
and Table-Top
Games.
Examples: American
Football; Atari
Baseball; Bowling;
Boxing (with Fighting);
Fishing Derby
(with Catching);
Hot Shots Tennis;
Golf; Human Cannonball (with Target);
Ice Hockey;
Madden Football 97; Miniature Golf; NHL Hockey 97; Pong (with Table-Top
Games); Skeet
Shoot (with Target);
Track & Field;
Summer Games; Video Olympics; RealSports Soccer; RealSports Tennis; RealSports Volleyball; SimGolf; Sky Diver; Tsuppori
Sumo Wrestling; World
Series Baseball ’98
Strategy
Games
emphasizing the use of strategy as opposed to fast action
or the use of quick reflexes, which are usually not necessary
for success in these games.
Note: See also management simulation games
like M.U.L.E.
and Spaceward Ho!, as well as many Board Games,
Card Games,
and Combat
games.
Examples: Ataxx
(with Abstract);
Checkers
(with Board Games),
Chess
(with Board Games);
Monopoly
(with Board Games);
M.U.L.E.
(with Management
Simulation); Othello
(with Board
Games); Spaceward
Ho! (with Management
Simulation); Stellar
Track
Table-Top
Games
Games
involving adaptations of existing table-top games requiring
physical skill or action (such as pool or pinball). This term should not be used for games involving little or
no physical skill or action (see Board Games
and Card Games),
nor should it be used for games which cannot be played on
a table-top of some sort (see Sports).
For games which resemble pinball games, see Pinball.
Note: Not necessary to cross-list with Adaptation,
as this is implied in Table-Top Games.
Examples: Battle Ping Pong; Electronic Table Soccer!;
Parlour Games;
Pocket Billiards!; Pong (with Sports);
Sure Shot Pool;
Trick Shot; Virtual Pool
Target
Games
in which the primary objective involves aiming and shooting
at targets which are not moving or in motion. Occasionally
the targets may be harming the player-character’s property
(as in Wabbit).
This term should not be used for games in which the player-character
can be fired upon by opponents (see Combat,
and Shoot
’Em Up), or games do not involve shooting (see Catching
and Collecting),
nor for games in which the objects or characters actively
elude the player-character.
Examples: Air-Sea
Battle; Carnival;
Human Cannonball;
Marksman/Trapshooting; Shooting Gallery; Skeet Shoot (with Sports);
Wabbit
Text
Adventure
Games
which rely primarily on text for the player interface, and
often for the description of the game’s “world” and the
action which takes place there as well. Some games may use
images, but these are usually noninteractive illustrations
which are not central to the play of the game. Games range
from allowing free movement throughout the game’s “world”
(usually by commands such as “north”, “south”, “east”, “west”,
“up”, and “down”) with a variety of options for interaction,
to more linear, branching narratives. Players often are
able to carry objects which are kept track of by an inventory
function, and are able to converse with computer-controlled
player-characters through a very limited vocabulary. Although
some games may incorporate text-based informational screens
(as in Stellar Track), rely on text for description
(such as the books in the library in Myst), or even use text as a graphic element (such as Rogue), this term should only be used
for games in which the “world” of the game is primarily
experienced through text which describes the world of the
game and the events occurring in it.
Note: Not necessary to cross-list with Adventure
since that is implied in Text Adventure. Multiple player
Text Adventures which are networked are considered to be
Role-Playing games (see Role-Playing).
Almost all Text Adventures can also be cross-listed with
Puzzle.
Examples: The
Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy; Planetfall; Leather
Goddesses of Phobos; Suspended;
Zork.
Training
Simulation
Games
or programs which attempt to simulate a realistic situation,
for the purpose of training, and usually the development
of some physical skill such as steering (as in driving and
flight simulators). This term should not be used for simulations
which focus on management (see Management
Simulation) or the employment of strategy (see Strategy).
These games can range from realistic simulations used by
institutions, such as those used to train astronauts, tank
drivers, or airline pilots, to simplified gamelike approximations
of them used mainly for entertainment, such as Police Trainer or A-10 Attack.
Note: Not necessary to cross-list with Utility
or Simulation,
as that is implied in Training Simulation.
Examples:
A-10 Attack; Comanche 3 (with Flying);
F/A-18 Hornet 3.0
(with Flying);
Flight Unlimited
(with Flying);
Police Trainer;
military and airline flight simulators; and driving simulations
used in driver education.
Utility
Cartridges
or programs which have a purpose or functional beyond that
of entertainment, although they may be structured in a manner
similar to games (such as Mario Teaches Typing) or contain elements
of entertainment. While they are often not games themselves, some of these programs
have the same appearance as game cartridges and are sometimes
collected and traded as game cartridges, and they are usually
included in listings of cartridges.
Note: See also Demo,
Diagnostic,
Educational,
and Simulation.
Examples: Basic
Programming; Beginning
Algebra; Beginning
Math; Computer
Programmer; Diagnostic Cartridge (Identification number
FDS100144) for the Atari 5200 system (with Diagnostic);
Home Finance;
Infogenius French Language Translator;
Mario Teaches Typing; Music Box Demo (with Demo);
Number Games; Speed Reading; Spelling Games; Touch Typing, Word Games
NOTES
1.
Thomas
Schatz, Hollywood
Genres, New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., ©1981,
page 15.
2.
Ibid.,
page 30.
3.
Ed
Buscombe, “The Idea of Genre in the American Cinema”, Screen,
Volume 11, Number 2, pages 33-45.
4.
Andrew
Tudor, “Genre and Critical Methodology”, in Movies and Methods, Volume I, edited by Bill Nichols,
Berkeley: University of California Press, ©1976, pages 118-126.
Copyright
© 2000 Mark
J. P. Wolf, from The Medium of the Video Game, University
of Texas Press.
